describe the four layers of the gi tract
The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is composed of four layers of tissue, known as tunics. Throughout its length, the alimentary tract is composed of the same four tissue layers; the details of their structural arrangements vary to fit their specific functions. Alone among the GI tract, the stomach has a third layer of muscularis externa. The lamina propria lies outside the epithelium. (5 Points) Serosa - The outer layer allows fluids to escape, keeping the outer surface wet and allowing organs to slide past one another during digestion and movement. Legal. Four layers of the Gastointestinal Tract The GI tract contains four layers: the innermost layer is the mucosa, underneath this is the submucosa, followed by the muscularis propria and finally, the outermost layer - the adventitia. Note that during fetal development, certain digestive structures, including the first portion of the small intestine (called the duodenum), the pancreas, and portions of the large intestine (the ascending and descending colon, and the rectum) remain completely or partially posterior to the peritoneum. Structure of the Muscularis Externa The lamina propria also contains the mucosaassociated lymphoid tissue (MALT), nodules of lymphatic tissue bearing lymphocytes and macrophages that protect the GI tract wall from bacteria and other pathogens that may be mixed with food. Describe the formation and structures of the 'generalised' body wall 2. A cross-section of the abdomen shows the relationship between abdominal organs and the peritoneum (darker lines). Explain how the enteric nervous system supports the digestive system. The Cardiovascular System: The Heart, Chapter 20. The accessory digestive structures include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. 120K views 10 years ago This video describes the functions of the 4 layers of the Alimentary canal. In addition, the mucosa has a thin, smooth muscle layer, called the muscularis mucosa (not to be confused with the muscularis layer, described below). The mucosa of the stomach is a simple columnar epithelium composed entirely of mucous cells that produce a protective layer of bicarbonate-rich alkaline mucus that clings to the stomach mucosa and protects the stomach wall from being damaged by acid and digested by enzymes. Rather, this blood is diverted to the liver where its nutrients are off-loaded for processing before blood completes its circuit back to the heart. Also called the gastrointestinal (GI) tract or gut, the alimentary canal (aliment- = to nourish) is a one-way tube about 7.62 meters (25 feet) in length during life and closer to 10.67 meters (35 feet) in length when measured after death, once smooth muscle tone is lost. Accessory digestive organs, despite their name, are critical to the function of the digestive system. In turn, the digestive system provides the nutrients to fuel endocrine function. It is composed of three layers: The submucosa lies outside the mucosa. The mucosa is the innermost layer, and functions in absorption and secretion. HV Carter was born in Yorkshire in 1831. An Introduction to the Human Body, Chapter 2. Submucosa - 3. Copyright 1999 2023 GoDaddy Operating Company, LLC. secretory and absorptive functions in small intestine and large intestine. June 14, 2022; park city pickleball tournament . Large intestine. Contains the submucosal enteric neural plexus that controls GI secretions and localized blood flow, David N. Shier, Jackie L. Butler, Ricki Lewis, Charles Welsh, Cynthia Prentice-Craver, David Shier, Jackie Butler, Ricki Lewis, Hole's Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, David Shier, Jackie Butler, John Hole, Ricki Lewis. Contribution of Other Body Systems to the Digestive System. The epithelium of the mucosa is particularly specialized, depending on the portion of the digestive system. Muscularis: This is composed of smooth muscle and is found in two regions as inner . Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License . Except in the mouth, esophagus, and anus where it's stratified squamous, the epithelium of mucosa is a simple columnar epithelium rich in mucus-secreting cells. Layers of the Stomach The stomach is a very complex organ. The Tissue Level of Organization, Chapter 6. To appreciate just how demanding the digestive process is on the cardiovascular system, consider that while you are resting and digesting, about one-fourth of the blood pumped with each heartbeat enters arteries serving the intestines. The Nervous System and Nervous Tissue, Chapter 13. The smooth muscle is responsible for movement of food by peristalsis and mechanical digestion by segmentation. Lecture 6: Anatomy of the Body Wall Learning Objectives 1. Identify the structural characteristic of smooth muscle fibers. In contrast, parasympathetic activation (the rest-and-digest response) increases GI secretion and motility by stimulating neurons of the enteric nervous system. Name the structure that forms the roof of the mouth. Creative Commons Attribution License 1. The secretions of the associated glandular organs, such as the salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gall bladder, aid the GI tract in accomplishing these functions. Describe the separation of the thorax and abdomen by the diaphragm 4. Even after development is complete, they maintain a connection to the gut by way of ducts. Name the structure connecting the pharynx to the stomach. The stomach can perform these roles due to the layers of the stomach wall. Only then does the blood drained from the alimentary canal viscera circulate back to the heart. The mucosa contains specialized goblet cells that secrete sticky mucus throughout the GI tract. For example, when an ulcer perforates the stomach wall, gastric juices spill into the peritoneal cavity. In general, sympathetic activation (the fight-or-flight response) restricts the activity of enteric neurons, thereby decreasing GI secretion and motility. It plays a primary role in the digestion of food and is also called the digestive tract. Mucous membrane: It is also known as mucosa. In the most proximal and distal regions of the alimentary canal, including the mouth, pharynx, anterior part of the esophagus, and external anal sphincter, the muscularis is made up of skeletal muscle, which gives you voluntary control over swallowing and defecation. The blood vessels serving the digestive system have two functions. What structure marks the division between the left and right lobe of the liver? the pyloric sphincter. EpitheliumIn the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and anal canal, the epithelium is primarily a non-keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. and any corresponding bookmarks? The interrelationship of the digestive and endocrine systems is also critical. They transport the protein and carbohydrate nutrients absorbed by mucosal cells after food is digested in the lumen. When you consider that the alimentary canal is exposed to foodborne bacteria and other foreign matter, it is not hard to appreciate why the immune system has evolved a means of defending against the pathogens encountered within it. Accessory digestive organs, despite their name, are critical to the function of the digestive system. It is composed of epithelium cells and a thin connective tissue. Swollen veins in the rectum that may result from straining during defecation. Within the mouth, the teeth and tongue begin mechanical digestion, whereas the salivary glands begin chemical digestion. Imagine a sheet of material just one layer of atoms thickless than a millionth . Since the mucosa is the innermost layer within the GI tract, it surrounds an open space known as the lumen. The digestive organs within the abdominal cavity are held in place by the peritoneum, a broad serous membranous sac made up of squamous epithelial tissue surrounded by connective tissue. Describe the arrangement and subdivisions of the thorax 5. The enteric nervous system provides intrinsic innervation, and the autonomic nervous system provides extrinsic innervation. In the stomach. When your great grandparents and even your parents were young, the mortality from peritonitis was high. An important one of these folds is the mesentery which attaches the small intestine to the body wall allowing for blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels to have a secure structure to travel through on their way to and from the small intestine. . The mucosa of the remainder of the GI tract is a delicate layer of simple columnar epithelium designed for absorption and secretion. Submucosa: connective tissue layer lying just below mucosa and contains many blood vessels and nerves. The digestive organs within the abdominal cavity are held in place by the peritoneum, a broad serous membranous sac made up of squamous epithelial tissue surrounded by connective tissue. Muscularis mucosaeThis thin layer of smooth muscle is in a constant state of tension, pulling the mucosa of the stomach and small intestine into undulating folds. It is composed of simple columnar epithelium or stratified squamous epithelium. The digestive tract wall initiates from the esophagus and ends at the rectum. The mucosa is the innermost layer. As is the case with all body systems, the digestive system does not work in isolation; it functions cooperatively with the other systems of the body. Each layer has different structures and functions. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is composed of four layers of tissue, known as tunics. In general, sympathetic activation (the fight-or-flight response) restricts the activity of enteric neurons, thereby decreasing GI secretion and motility. Name the four types of teeth and the three main parts of a typical tooth. It is part of the digestive tract, located between the esophagus and the duodenum. and you must attribute OpenStax. Part B: First, describe the four major layers of the GI tract that are found from esophagus to anus. The fibers lie parallel, in a longitudinal view of the digestive tract, the fibers of the superficial circular layer appear as round balls, the fibers of the deep longitudinal layer are spindle-shaped. A few milliliters of watery fluid act as a lubricant to minimize friction between the serosal surfaces of the peritoneum. The lamina propria is a layer of connective tissue that is unusually cellular compared to most connective tissue. David N. Shier, Jackie L. Butler, Ricki Lewis, Hole's Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, David Shier, Jackie Butler, John Hole, Ricki Lewis. The first group is the organs that make up the alimentary canal. What layer of the alimentary canal tissue is capable of helping to protect the body against disease, and through what mechanism? Each layer has different structures and functions. FormalPara Learning Outcomes . Describe the orientation of smooth muscle fibers in the muscularis externa of the digestive tract. The main function of the organs of the alimentary canal is to nourish the body. These enteric neurons are grouped into two plexuses. Within these folds are blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves that innervate the organs with which they are in contact, supplying their adjacent organs. from your Reading List will also remove any Of these, eugenol, had an EC50 of 1.3 M against EBOV and is present in several plants including clove, cinnamon, basil and bay. The basic two-layer structure found in the small intestine is modified in the organs proximal and distal to it. Chemical peritonitis can develop any time the wall of the alimentary canal is breached, allowing the contents of the lumen entry into the peritoneal cavity. The wall of the alimentary canal is composed of four basic tissue layers: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. The five major peritoneal folds are described in Table 23.2. The lamina propria of the mucosa contains lymphoid tissue that makes up the MALT and responds to pathogens encountered in the alimentary canal. Your IP address is listed in our blacklist and blocked from completing this request. The alimentary canal is the pathway (a tube-like structure) that starts from the mouth and ends in the anus. Thus, the location of these organs is described as retroperitoneal. Name the four layers of the digestive tract from superficial to deep. Esophagus. Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa. Choose a modest trial pack with just two or four candies if you want to try these gummies out quickly. Consider for example, the interrelationship between the digestive and cardiovascular systems. typically a simple cuboidal or a simple columnar epithelium. There are four layers making up our atmosphere: The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. The interrelationship of the digestive and endocrine systems is also critical. the epithelium is simple columnar, and is organized into gastric pits and glands to deal with secretion. The Cardiovascular System: Blood, Chapter 19. Each accessory digestive organ aids in the breakdown of food (Figure 23.1.2). 1. The mucosae (singular: mucosa) are highly specialized in each organ of the gastrointestinal tract in order to deal with different digestive tract conditions. The organs of the gastrointestinal tract contain layers of muscles, enabling their walls to move food through the tract by a process called peristalsis, allowing for the . Interspersed among its epithelial cells are goblet cells, which secrete mucus and fluid into the lumen, and enteroendocrine cells, which secrete hormones into the interstitial spaces between cells. It also joins the mucosa to the bulk of underlying smooth muscle (fibers running circularly within layer of longitudinal muscle). Peritonitis is life threatening and often results in emergency surgery to correct the underlying problem and intensive antibiotic therapy. Consider how understanding the function of the Gastro-intestinal (GI) tract is useful in the care of patients with surgical changes for example the formation of an ileostomy. Support/stabilize the organs of the abdominopelvic cavity and route for blood. lamina propria. supports avascular mucosal epithelium. The muscularis in the small intestine is made up of a double layer of smooth muscle: an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer. The submucosa is found beneath the mucosa layer. The inner shell carries a charge +2q, and the outer shell carries a charge -q. The visceral peritoneum includes multiple large folds that envelope various abdominal organs, holding them to the dorsal surface of the body wall. However, if you are a seasoned user . In some regions, the circular layer of smooth muscle enlarges to form sphincters, circular muscles that control the opening and closing of the lumen (such as between the stomach and small intestine). Describe the structure and function of the pharynx. 1999-2023, Rice University. Muscularis mucosaThis thin layer of smooth muscle is in a constant state of tension, pulling the mucosa of the stomach and small intestine into undulating folds. In the esophagus, the epithelium is stratified, squamous, and non-keratinizing, for protective purposes. The basic two-layer structure found in the small intestine is modified in the organs proximal and distal to it. From the inside out they are called the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa. It is rounded and hollow, and located near the diaphragm in the left part of your abdomen. Thus, the location of these organs is described as retroperitoneal. The third layer with high autonomy is defined as semiautonomous navigation, transferring the decision priority to the system. The submucosal plexus (plexus of Meissner) lies in the submucosal layer and is responsible for regulating digestive secretions and reacting to the presence of food (see Figure 23.1.2). Describe the four layers of the GI tract 1. The wall of the GI tract from the esophagus to the anal canal has four-layer from deep to superficial, are the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis and serosa/adventitia. In the gastrointestinal tract, the submucosa is the layer of dense irregular connective tissue or loose connective tissue that supports the mucosa. Epithelial cells have a very brief lifespan, averaging from only a couple of days (in the mouth) to about a week (in the gut). The gastrointestinal wall is inflamed in a number of conditions. The muscularis in the small intestine is made up of a double layer of smooth muscle: an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer. EpitheliumIn the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and anal canal, the epithelium is primarily a non-keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. Once food products enter the small intestine, the gallbladder, liver, and pancreas release secretionssuch as bile and enzymesessential for digestion to continue. Additionally, it serves as a conduit for a dense branching network of nerves, the submucosal plexus, which functions as described below. Note that during fetal development, certain digestive structures, including the first portion of the small intestine (called the duodenum), the pancreas, and portions of the large intestine (the ascending and descending colon, and the rectum) remain completely or partially posterior to the peritoneum. Our mission is to improve educational access and learning for everyone. The pelvic cavity contains the urinary bladder, rectum, and internal reproductive organs. The serosa is the portion of the alimentary canal superficial to the muscularis. are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written The stomach is equipped for its churning function by the addition of a third layer, the oblique muscle. The easiest way to understand the digestive system is to divide its organs into two main categories. These lymphocyte clusters are particularly substantial in the distal ileum where they are known as Peyers patches. Mucosa - 2. Lamina propriaIn addition to loose connective tissue, the lamina propria contains numerous blood and lymphatic vessels that transport nutrients absorbed through the alimentary canal to other parts of the body. Present only in the region of the alimentary canal within the abdominal cavity, it consists of a layer of visceral peritoneum overlying a layer of loose connective tissue. 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If you are the site owner (or you manage this site), please whitelist your IP or if you think this block is an error please open a support ticket and make sure to include the block details (displayed in the box below), so we can assist you in troubleshooting the issue. Name the four layers of the digestive tract from superficial to deep. There are two types of epithelial membranes, mucous membrane and serous membrane. The submucosal plexus (plexus of Meissner) lies in the submucosal layer and is responsible for regulating digestive secretions and reacting to the presence of food (see Figure 23.3). ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Individual Components of the Gastrointestinal System Oral cavity The oral cavity or mouth is responsible for the intake of food. A few milliliters of watery fluid act as a lubricant to minimize friction between the serosal surfaces of the peritoneum. Each villus contains a lacteal. 2023 Course Hero, Inc. All rights reserved. The epithelial membrane consists of a layer of epithelial tissue and has underlying connective tissue. A broad layer of dense connective tissue, it connects the overlying mucosa to the underlying muscularis. Gastric glands. When viewed from above, because of internal reflection, the light source makes a disc of light on the water's surface. Contains many glands which open into the lumen by way of ducts. Only through the process of absorption do the nutrients in food enter into and nourish the bodys inner space.. The structure of these layers varies, in different regions of the digestive system, depending on their function. By the end of this section, you will be able to: The function of the digestive system is to break down the foods you eat, release their nutrients, and absorb those nutrients into the body. citation tool such as, Authors: J. Gordon Betts, Kelly A. A) Mucosa- The mucosa, or innermost of the GI tract, is a mucous membrane. The peritoneal cavity is the space bounded by the visceral and parietal peritoneal surfaces. Name the four layers of the GI tract, and describe their functions. The gallbladder releases bile, which is responsible as a buffer and emulsification, while the pancreas provides enzymes that break down starches, lipids, nucleic acids & proteins. These enteric neurons are grouped into two plexuses. Blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves (all supplying the . The mucosa is the innermost layer of the GI tract. The membrane consists of epithelium, which is in direct contact with ingested food, and the lamina propria, a layer of connective tissue analogous to the dermis. Name the four major regions of the stomach in order from its connection with the esophagus to the small intestine. The third layer of the alimentary canal is the muscalaris (also called the muscularis externa). It is also important for the telecommunication industry to obtain a high profit. Despite the fact that people use it on a daily basis, most people only have a basic understanding of what it is and how it works. Mucosa. Muscular layer 4. Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract: The GI tract functions to provide the transportation, digestion and absorption of food that we ingest through our mouth. In the stomach and intestines, it is a simple columnar epithelium. Instead of serosa, the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus have a dense sheath of collagen fibers called the adventitia. The mucosa is referred to as a mucous membrane, because mucus production is a characteristic feature of gut epithelium. Previous As soon as food enters the mouth, it is detected by receptors that send impulses along the sensory neurons of cranial nerves. Going from the inside out, these are: mucosa; submucosa; muscularis externa; adventitia or serosa; Figure 2: Schematic drawing of the digestive tract layers Mucosa. How does this change in consistency facilitate your gaining nutrients from food? A&P: Chapter 38 Section: Organization of the Digestive System Awarded 25 points out of 25 possible points. The following is a description of the various types of serosae associated with the digestive system: The adventitia is the serous membrane that lines the muscularis externa of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, and rectum. 1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body, 2.1 Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter, 2.4 Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 2.5 Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 3.2 The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles, 4.3 Connective Tissue Supports and Protects, 5.3 Functions of the Integumentary System, 5.4 Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System, 6.6 Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue, 6.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems, 7.6 Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton, 8.5 Development of the Appendicular Skeleton, 10.3 Muscle Fiber Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation, 10.4 Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension, 10.8 Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue, 11.1 Describe the roles of agonists, antagonists and synergists, 11.2 Explain the organization of muscle fascicles and their role in generating force, 11.3 Explain the criteria used to name skeletal muscles, 11.4 Axial Muscles of the Head Neck and Back, 11.5 Axial muscles of the abdominal wall and thorax, 11.6 Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs, 11.7 Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs, 12.1 Structure and Function of the Nervous System, 13.4 Relationship of the PNS to the Spinal Cord of the CNS, 13.6 Testing the Spinal Nerves (Sensory and Motor Exams), 14.2 Blood Flow the meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid Production and Circulation, 16.1 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System, 16.4 Drugs that Affect the Autonomic System, 17.3 The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus, 17.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions, 17.11 Development and Aging of the Endocrine System, 19.2 Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity, 20.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels, 20.2 Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance, 20.4 Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System, 20.6 Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation, 21.1 Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems, 21.2 Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response, 21.3 The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types, 21.4 The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies, 21.5 The Immune Response against Pathogens, 21.6 Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses, 21.7 Transplantation and Cancer Immunology, 22.1 Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System, 22.6 Modifications in Respiratory Functions, 22.7 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System, 23.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation, 23.5 Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder, 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look, 25.1 Internal and External Anatomy of the Kidney, 25.2 Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney: Anatomy of the Nephron, 25.3 Physiology of Urine Formation: Overview, 25.4 Physiology of Urine Formation: Glomerular Filtration, 25.5 Physiology of Urine Formation: Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion, 25.6 Physiology of Urine Formation: Medullary Concentration Gradient, 25.7 Physiology of Urine Formation: Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition, 27.3 Physiology of the Female Sexual System, 27.4 Physiology of the Male Sexual System, 28.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth, 28.5 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages. Dec 13, 2022 OpenStax. Table 23.1 gives a quick glimpse at how these other systems contribute to the functioning of the digestive system. Goblet cells secrete mucus that protects the epithelium from digestion, and endocrine cells secrete hormones into the blood. The oral cavity is lined by which type of epithelium? While the colon has two layers like the small intestine, its longitudinal layer is segregated into three narrow parallel bands, the tenia coli, which make it look like a series of pouches rather than a simple tube. Deeper connective tissue which supports the mucosa Hormones secreted by several endocrine glands, as well as endocrine cells of the pancreas, the stomach, and the small intestine, contribute to the control of digestion and nutrient metabolism. Arteries supply the digestive organs with oxygen and processed nutrients, and veins drain the digestive tract. Between the bases of the villi are intestinal glands lined by enteroendocrine, mucous, and stem cells. The wall of the digestive tract has four layers or tunics: Mucosa Submucosa Muscular layer Serous layer or serosa The mucosa, or mucous membrane layer, is the innermost tunic of the wall. This venous network takes the blood into the liver where the nutrients are either processed or stored for later use. The Chemical Level of Organization, Chapter 3. Are you sure you want to remove #bookConfirmation# The third layer of the alimentary canal is the muscularis (also called the muscularis externa). The mucosa surrounds the lumen, or open space within the digestive tube. The peritoneal cavity is the space bounded by the visceral and parietal peritoneal surfaces. Instead of serosa, the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus have a dense sheath of collagen fibers called the adventitia. Arteries supply the digestive organs with oxygen and processed nutrients, and veins drain the digestive tract. Explain the reason. are licensed under a, Structural Organization of the Human Body, Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter, Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, Nervous Tissue Mediates Perception and Response, Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System, Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue, Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems, Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton, Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue, Interactions of Skeletal Muscles, Their Fascicle Arrangement, and Their Lever Systems, Axial Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Back, Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall, and Thorax, Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs, Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs, Basic Structure and Function of the Nervous System, Circulation and the Central Nervous System, Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System, Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions, Development and Aging of the Endocrine System, The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation, Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance, Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System, Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation, Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems, Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response, The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types, The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies, Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses, Energy, Maintenance, and Environmental Exchange, Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System, Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System, Digestive System Processes and Regulation, Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder, Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look, Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition, Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance, Human Development and the Continuity of Life, Anatomy and Physiology of the Testicular Reproductive System, Anatomy and Physiology of the Ovarian Reproductive System, Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems, Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth, Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages.
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